Embedded Generation (Power & Energy Ser. 31)

Preface Contributors Glossary 1. Introduction 1.1 - Embedded or dispersed generation 1.2 - Reasons for embedded generation 1.3 - Extent of embedded generation 1.4 - Issues of embedded generation 1.5 - Technical impacts of embedded generation on the distribution system 1.5.1 - Network voltage changes 1.5.2 - Increase in network fault levels 1.5.3 - Power quality 1.5.4 - Protection 1.5.5 - Stability 1.5.6 - Network operation 1.6 - Economic impact of embedded generation on the distribution system 1.7 - Impact of embedded generation on the transmission system 1.8 - Impact of embedded generation on central generation 1.9 - References 2. Embedded generation plant 2.1 - Combined Heat and Power plants 2.2 - Renewable energy generation 2.2.1 - Small-scale hydro-generation 2.2.2 - Wind power plants 2.2.3 - Offshore wind energy 2.2.4 - Solar photovoltaic generation 2.3 - Summary 2.4 - References 3. System studies 3.1- Introduction 3.2 - Types of system studies 3.3 - Power flow studies 3.3.1 - Power flow in a two-bus system 3.3.2 - Relation between flows and voltages 3.3.3 - Power flow in larger systems 3.3.4 - Solving the power flow equations 3.3.5 - Application to an embedded generation scheme 3.4 - Fault studies 3.4.1 - Balanced fault calculations 3.4.2 - Concept of fault level 3.4.3 - Application to an embedded generation scheme 3.4.4 - Unbalanced faults 3.4.5 - Application to an embedded generation scheme 3.4.6 - Standards for fault calculations 3.5 - Stability studies 3.5.1 - A simple dynamic model of the mechanical subsystem 3.5.2 - Power transfer in a two-bus system 3.5.3 - Electro-mechanical transients following a fault 3.5.4 - The equal area criterion 3.5.5- Stability studies in larger systems 3.5.6 - Stability of induction generators 3.5.7 - Application to an embedded generation scheme 3.6 - Electromagnetic transient studies 3.7 - References 3.8 - Appendix: Equal area criterion 4. Generators 4.1 - Synchronous generators 4.1.1 - Steady-state operation 4.1.2 - Excitation systems 4.1.3 - Operation during network disturbances 4.2 Induction generators 4.2.1 - Steady-state operation 4.2.2 - Connection of an induction generator 4.2.3 - Self-excitation 4.2.4 - Operation during network disturbances 4.2.5 - Advanced shunt compensation for induction generators 4.3 - Power electronic converters 4.3.1 - Voltage source converters 4.4 - References 5. Power quality 5.1 - Voltage flicker 5.2 - Harmonics 5.3 - Voltage unbalance 5.4 - Summary 5.5 - References 6. Protection of embedded generators 6.1 - Introduction 6.2 - Protection schemes for isolated and embedded generators 6.2.1 - Single generator on an isolated network 6.2.2 - Generator operating in parallel with other generators on an isolated network 6.2.3 - Generator embedded into utility network 6.2.4 - Protection requirements 6.3 - Overcurrent protection 6.3.1 - Overcurrent protection of the generator intertie 6.3.2 - Example of how overcurrent protection can be applied to an LV connected generator 6.3.3 - Negative sequence overcurrent 6.3.4 - Directional control of overcurrent elements 6.4 - Earth fault overcurrent protection 6.4.1 - Methods of earthing the generator 6.4.2 - Time-delayed earth fault overcurrent 6.4.3 - Earthing of transformer connected generators 6.4.4 - Earthing of directly connected generators 6.5 - Differential protection of the stator winding 6.5.1 - Operating principle 6.5.2 - High-impedance differential 6.5.3 - Low-impedance biased differential protection 6.6 - Phase and interturn faults on the stator windings 6.7 - Under/overvoltage protection 6.8 - Under/overfrequency protection 6.9 - Reverse power relay 6.10 - Loss of excitation 6.11 - Unbalanced loading 6.12 - Generator stator thermal protection 6.13 - Overexcitation 6.14 - Loss of mains protection 6.14.1 - Rate of change of frequency 6.14.2 - Vector shift 6.15 - Rotor protection 6.16 - References 7. Reliability concepts and assessment 7.1 - Introduction 7.2 - HLI - generation capacity 7.3 - HLII - composite generation and transmission systems 7.4 - HLIII - distribution systems without embedded generation 7.4.1 - Conceptual requirements 7.4.2 - Probabilistic criteria and indices 7.4.3 - Historical evaluation techniques 7.4.4 - Basic reliability assessments 7.5 - Distribution systems with embedded generation 7.5.1 - Concepts of embedded generation 7.5.2 - Types and impact of energy sources 7.6 - Historical reliability assessment approaches 7.7 - Simplified case studies 7.7.1 - Basic radial systems 7.7.2 - Embedded generation vs. network expansion 7.8 - Generation reliability modelling 7.8.1 - Modelling assumptions and considerations 7.8.2 - Concepts of modelling 7.8.3 - Energy source model 7.8.4 - Generation model 7.8.5 - Generation plant model 7.8.6 - Solution of the plant model 7.9 - Network reliability model 7.10 - Reliability and production indices 7.10.1 - Capacity credit 7.10.2 - Reliability indices 7.10.3 - Production indices 7.11 - Study cases 7.12 - Conclusions 7.13 - References 8. Economics of embedded generation 8.1 - Introduction 8.2 - Connection costs and charges 8.2.1 - Concept 8.2.2 - Voltage level related connection cost 8.2.3 - Deep v. shallow connection charges 8.3 - Distribution use of system charges and embedded generation 8.3.1 - Current practice 8.3.2 - Contribution of embedded generation to network security 8.4 - Allocation of losses in distribution networks with EG 8.5 - An alternative framework for distribution tariff development 8.5.1 - Stage 1: Optimal network capacity for transport 8.5.2 - Stage 2: Security driven network expenditure 8.5.3 - Stage 3: Pricing - allocation of costs 8.6 - Conclusions 8.7 - References 9. Concluding remarksPeter Crossley is the author of 'Embedded Generation (Power & Energy Ser. 31)' with ISBN 9780852967744 and ISBN 0852967748.